The Global Rare-Earth Mineral Landscape: Which Nations Hold the Keys to Tech and Clean Energy Supply?

The race for control over rare-earth mineral resources is heating up, and it’s reshaping the geopolitical and technological landscape. With 130 million metric tons of rare-earth mineral reserves distributed globally, the top eight reserve-holding nations are positioning themselves as critical players in the electric vehicle, renewable energy, and advanced technology sectors. Here’s what you need to know about who’s winning.

Understanding the Stakes

Rare-earth mineral elements—a group of 17 naturally occurring metals that include the lanthanide series, yttrium, and scandium—have become indispensable. Heavy rare earths like neodymium, praseodymium, terbium, and dysprosium power magnets in wind turbines, EV motors, and military applications. Light rare earths are equally critical for electronics and lighting. Yet here’s the catch: finding economically viable deposits is notoriously difficult, and separating these chemically similar elements requires expensive, lengthy processes using solvent extraction methods that can involve hundreds or thousands of cycles to achieve high purity.

Global production of rare-earth minerals hit 390,000 metric tons in 2024—a climb from just 100,000 MT a decade ago—but demand continues to outpace supply concerns.

The Dominance Factor: China’s Chokehold

China leads by a landslide with 44 million metric tons of rare-earth mineral reserves and produced 270,000 MT in 2024. This represents 69% of global production. The Asian powerhouse has been deliberate in securing its position: it established commercial and national stockpiles, cracked down on illegal mining, and strategically raised production quotas in recent years. The country even banned the export of rare-earth magnet technology to the US in December 2023, a move escalating trade tensions.

China’s leverage has triggered a supply-chain crisis mentality worldwide. When the country cut exports in 2010, prices spiked and nations scrambled to diversify sources. Today, China is importing heavy rare earths from Myanmar, where environmental safeguards are lax—mountains along the Sino-Myanmar border have been devastated by mining operations.

Emerging Challengers: Brazil and India

Brazil holds second place with 21 million metric tons of rare-earth mineral reserves but produced only 20 MT in 2024. That’s about to change. Serra Verde launched commercial production at its Pela Ema deposit in Goiás state in early 2024, with plans to produce 5,000 MT of rare-earth oxide annually by 2026. Notably, Pela Ema hosts one of the world’s largest ionic clay deposits and will be the only rare-earth operation outside China producing all four critical magnet rare earths—a major breakthrough for supply diversification.

India ranks third with 6.9 million metric tons and produced 2,900 MT in 2024. The nation holds nearly 35% of global beach and sand mineral deposits—significant sources of rare earths. The Indian government is moving fast: in October 2024, Trafalgar announced plans to build India’s first rare earth metals, alloy, and magnet plant, signaling serious intent to capitalize on its reserve base.

Australia and Russia: Expansion and Stagnation

Australia claims 5.7 million metric tons and tied for fourth in production at 13,000 MT. Lynas Rare Earths operates the Mount Weld mine and recently completed a new processing facility in Kalgoorlie (mid-2024). Hastings Technology Metals’ Yangibana mine is shovel-ready and expects 37,000 MT of concentrate annually by Q4 2026—a game-changer for non-Chinese supply.

Russia, with 3.8 million metric tons, saw its reserves slashed from 10 million MT the prior year. The country produced 2,500 MT in 2024, flat year-over-year. Ukraine’s invasion derailed Moscow’s plans to invest $1.5 billion in competing with China—the rare-earth sector development has effectively stalled.

The Wildcards: Vietnam, US, and Greenland

Vietnam holds 3.5 million metric tons but saw its reserves revised down dramatically from 22 million MT in 2023. Production collapsed to just 300 MT. The arrest of six rare-earth executives in October 2023, including Vietnam Rare Earth’s chairman on charges of forging VAT receipts, has cast a shadow over the nation’s ambitious goal to produce 2.02 million MT by 2030.

The United States ranks seventh with 1.9 million metric tons despite being the second-largest producer at 45,000 MT in 2024. All US rare-earth mineral production flows from California’s Mountain Pass mine, owned by MP Materials. The US Department of Energy earmarked $17.5 million in April 2024 for processing technologies that would extract rare earths from coal and coal by-products—a novel supply-chain hedge.

Greenland holds 1.5 million metric tons but doesn’t currently produce. The Tanbreez and Kvanefjeld projects are in advanced stages. Critical Metals acquired controlling stakes in Tanbreez and commenced drilling in September 2024. Energy Transition Minerals faced setbacks with Kvanefjeld after Greenland’s government revoked permits due to uranium exploitation concerns, though the company submitted revised plans excluding uranium. Notably, President Trump has signaled interest in Greenland’s rare-earth reserves, though Greenland’s leadership insists the territory is not for sale.

The Environmental Cost

Rare-earth mineral mining wreaks environmental havoc, particularly in unregulated operations. Ore bodies containing rare earths often harbor thorium and uranium—radioactive materials requiring careful separation. Improper handling results in radioactive waste contaminating groundwater and streams. In-situ leaching, a common extraction method, has triggered over 100 landslides in China’s Ganzhou region alone. Myanmar’s mountains show visible devastation: as of mid-2022, 2,700 illegal collection pools from in-situ leaching covered an area the size of Singapore, leaving nearby communities without safe drinking water.

What Lies Ahead

The rare-earth mineral sector stands at an inflection point. Supply diversification is accelerating—Brazil’s Pela Ema, Australia’s expanded operations, and India’s new processing plants will challenge China’s dominance. Meanwhile, Europe is making moves: Sweden’s LKAB identified the Per Geijer deposit in early 2023, containing over 1 million MT of rare-earth mineral oxides, the continent’s largest known deposit. The European Union’s Critical Raw Materials Act aims to build regional supply chains.

For investors and policymakers, the lesson is clear: securing access to rare-earth mineral resources is no longer optional—it’s strategic. As electric vehicles, renewable energy, and advanced technologies reshape global demand, the nations and companies controlling rare earths will hold outsized influence over the tech and energy sectors for decades to come.